Lunes, Setyembre 30, 2013

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY III- CHEMISTRY




SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY III
 CHEMISTRY

Learning Content:

·         Trends in the Periodic Table
§  Sizes of Atoms and ions
§  Ionization Energy
§  Electron Affinity
§  Electron Negativiy
             
References:
           [1] SETS- Chemistry by Ungson
           [2] General chemistry by Petrucci

Lesson Proper: Part I-Sizes of Atoms and ions


PERIODIC TRENDS


1. Atomic Radius (Atomic Size)

-       Unfortunately, atomic radius is hard to define. However, we can measure the distance between the nuclei of adjacent atoms (internuclear distance). Thus, we can emphasize an atomic radius based on the distance between the nuclei of two atoms joined by a chemical bond.

-       Types of atomic radii include covalent radii, metallic radii, and ionic radii.

§  Covalent radius- is one-half the distance between the nuclei of the two atoms joined by a single covalent bond.


§  Metallic radius- as one-half the distance between the nuclei of two atoms in contact in the crystalline solid metal.



§  Ionic radius- is based on the distance between the nuclei of ions joined by an ionic bond. Because the ions are not identical in size, this distance must be properly apportioned between the cation and anion. One way to apportion the electron density between the ions is to define the radius of one ion and then infer the radius of the other ion.




  • Variation of Atomic Radii Within a Group of the Periodic Table.
Moving down a group, the principal quantum number (n) of the outermost electrons increases. Electrons with a larger principal quantum number are found in orbitals that extend farther away from the nucleus, which makes the atomic radius larger.

                Nevertheless, the more electronic shells in an atom, the larger is the atom.
 Atomicradius increases from top to   bottom through a group of elements.

  • Variation of Atomic Radii Within a Period of the Periodic Table.
In any period, the outer electrons of each element are in orbitals with the same principal quantum number. But moving from left to right across a period, the atom’s nuclei gain more protons. Atoms that have a more positive charge in their nuclei exert a stronger pull on the electrons in a given principal quantum number. Thus, the atom’s outer electrons are increasingly attracted to the nucleus. It shrinks the electrons’ orbitals and makes the atom smaller. The distance between the nucleus and the electrons does not increase as there is no added orbital, thus resulting in a stronger attractive force and “shrinking the atom”.

Thus, the atomic radius decreases from left to right through a period of elements.

EXAMPLE 1: Relating Atomic Size to Position in the Periodic Table
Refer only to the periodic table on the inside front cover of your textbook, and determine which the largest atom is: Sc, Ba, or Se.

Analyze
We first place the element in the periodic table and decide whether or not the elements are in the same period and whether they are on the right or left of the periodic table. We can then use the rules noted above to decide on the relative sizes of atoms (or ions).

Solve
Sc and Se are both in the fourth period, and we would expect Sc to be larger than Se because atomic sizes decrease from left to right in a period. Ba is in the sixth period and so has more electronic shells than either Sc or Se. Furthermore, it lies even closer to the left side of the table (group 2) than does Sc (group 3). We can say with confidence that the Ba atom should be the largest of the three.


PRACTICE EXERCISE 1: Use the periodic table on the inside front cover of your textbook to predict which is the smallest atom: As, I, or S.
_______________________________________________________________________________

2. Ionic Size
  • When an atom loses electrons – or becomes a positive ion – it becomes smaller.
Loss of electrons vacates the atom’s largest orbitals and reduces the repulsive
force between the remaining electrons, allowing them to be pulled closer
to the nucleus.It becomes smaller because it has fewer electrons.
           
            The given figure compares four species:
            the atoms Na and Mg and the ions Na+
            And Mg2+. As expected, the Mg atom is
            smaller than the Na atom, and the cations
            are smaller than the corresponding atoms.

            Na+ and Mg2+ are isoelectronic- they have
            equal numbers of electrons (10) in identical
            configurations, 1s22s22p6. Mg2+ is smaller
             than Na+ because its nuclear charge is larger
            (+12, compared with +11 for Na)

·         For isoelectronic cations, the more positive the ionic 
          charge, the smaller the ionic radius.

  • When an atom gains electrons – or becomes a negative ion – it becomes larger.
Greater number of electrons increases the electric repulsion forces among them causing the electrons to spread out, thus, making the ion larger.
It becomes larger because of the increase in the number of electrons.

EXAMPLE 2: Comparing the Sizes of Cations and Anions
Refer only to the periodic table on the inside front cover of your text book, and arrange the following species in order of increasing size: K+, Cl-, S2- and Ca2+.

Analyze
The key lies in recognizing that the four species are isoelectronic, having the electron configuration of argon: 1s22s22p63s23p6. When considering isoelectronic cations, the higher the charge on the ion, the smaller the ion.

Solve
The larger charge on the calcium ion means that Ca2+ is smaller than K+. Because K+ has a higher nuclear charge than Cl- (Z=19 compared Z=17 with), it is smaller than Cl- . For isoelectronic anions, the higher the charge, the larger the ion. S2- is larger than Cl- . The order of increasing size is
Ca2+< K+< Cl- < S2-
Assess
We can summarize the generalizations about isoelectronic atoms and ions into a single statement: Among isoelectronic species, the greater the atomic number, the smaller the size.

PRACTICE EXERCISE 2: Refer only to the periodic table on the inside front cover, and arrange the following species in order of increasing size: Ti2+, V3+, Ca2+, Br- and Sr2+.

PRACTICE EXERCISE 3: On the blank periodic table below, locate the following:
(a) The smallest group 13 atom                                       (b) The smallest period 3 atom
(c) The largest anion of a nonmetal in period 3                 (d) The largest group 13 cation


                                                          ---END---

ELECTIVE MATH 7 (2ND GRADING PERIOD)

ELECTIVE MATH 7 (2ND GRADING PERIOD)
COURSE OUTLINE:
CHAPTER 7
Lesson 1 : The Three Elements of Geometry
Lesson 2 : Segment and Their Measures
Lesson 3 : Angles and their Measurement
Lesson 4 : Use a Protractor
Lesson 5 : Plane Figures
Lesson 6 : Use of the Compass
Lesson 7 : Three-Dimensional Figures

Review (Lesson 1 & 2)

GEOMETRY the word geometry comes from the two ancient Greek word, geo, meaning EARTH, and metria meaning MEASURE. So literally, Geometry means to measure the earth.

UNDEFINED TERMS:
1.    POINT – is the simplest and yet most important building block in geometry. It is a location and occupies no space.
How to sketch:
                  Using “ “or “ x”
How to label:
                Use capital letter

N Remember: Never name two points with same letter in the same sketch.
Example:
a.    A           B           The three dots represent points C,M,Q
         C
b.    Z            Point Z or Z

2. LINE – Are infinite series of points. Infinite means without end. A Line extends infinitely in two opposite directions but has no width and height.

 
3. PLANE – is infinite set of points extending in all direction along perfectly that surface. It is infinity long and infinity wide. A plane has a thickness or height of zero.










 


MEASUREMENT OF LINE SEGMENT
- The measure of line segment is the length of the line segment. Use the name of the line segment without the line above the name.



MIDPOINT
- Of a line segment divides the line segment into two congruent segments.


Lesson 3 : Angles and their Measurement

Angles
- is formed by two rays that have a common (or shared endpoints). The rays form the sides of the angle, and their endpoint forms its vertex.

 
It is customary to use small letters in the Greek alphabet to symbolize angle measurement. 


Name the angle by using the symbol < and the letter representing the vertex. For example from the figure below named as <ABC or <CBA. The middle letter B represents the vertex. This angle can be named also as <B. It may also be named by a greek letter, number or a lower case letter inside the angle, so it is <β.




  

OTHER TYPES OF ANGLES
11.    Adjacent angles – are two angles that share a vertex and a common side that separates them. Angles 1 and 2 are examples of adjacent angles.



12.    Vertical angles – When two lines intersect so as form angles, the angles on opposite side of the common vertex.



13.       Complementary angles – any two angles that add up to 90°.



14.       Supplementary angles – When two angles add up to a total of 180°.